NOTE: All province names are abbreviations consisting of the first three letters of the province name, except for the following (listed from north and east to west and south):

BLF (Belfast),  BRG (Bergen),  PET (St. Petersburg),  WLS (Wales),  BLG (Belgium),
 BRL (Berlin),  VND (La VendŽe),  GLA (Galicia, Austrian),  EPR (East Prussia), 
GLS (Galicia, Spain),  VNZ (Venezia),  WLL (Wallachia),  CRS (Corsica),  CRF (Corfu).

ECONOMIC ROOTS OF THE WAR

The causes of the Napoleonic Wars are complex, but beneath all the propaganda its roots reach down into the ancient struggle for wealth, power and position between Britain and France, back through Agincourt, Poitiers to Hastings in 1066. In some respects the Napoleonic Empire was a counter-revolution, restoring order after a period of excess, but in other respects it carried on revolutionary goals. Napoleon's very existence was an affront to the royal houses of Europe and their loyalists. Even worse, his economic policy opposed the hegemony of London bankersÑhe resolved never to "live upon the future," and never ran a deficit budget.

Britain, birthplace of the industrial revolution, was second to none in manufacturing. Her population of 11 million, with limited natural resources on their island, had colonized the world. With the largest merchant fleet in the worldÑ20,000 vessels totaling two million tons), British traders were able to dictate the prices they paid for colonial merchandise. Maritime supremacy gave them control of the colonial reexport trade (coffee, tea, sugar, spices, cotton and dyes); this is the source of their 50 Gold from overseas trade. British exports, at £40 million in 1805, after first dipping to £35 million in 1808 and then losing £8 million between 1809 and 1812, rebounded to £55 million in 1815. The growing economy made it possible to finance an ever-growing debt burden. In 1813, 60% of the British budget was borrowed money. From £580 million in 1805, by 1815 the national debt had grown to £900 million. With access to unlimited bank credit, British diplomats were able to encourage their sometimes hesitant alliance partners with large cash subsidies.

France, in contrast, a nation of 27 million people, had little credit at the bank; her seaborne trade had been strangled by British blockade. As a result, Napoleon had to finance his campaigns by the spoils of war, collecting huge sums from the conquered nations and satellite kingdoms. As his dominion contracted, so did his budget, In 1813, when Great Britain was spending £174 million (£105 of it borrowed), the French expenditure was about £40 million.

THE THIRD COALITION DEVELOPS

In 1802, the Treaty of Amiens established the basis of peace between France and Britain. France agreed to evacuate NAP and ROM while the British agreed to give up MAL. However, as the French refused to negotiate a trade treaty with Great Britain, Prime Minister Addington decided to abrogate the treaty and retain MAL, thus supplying the casus belli. Napoleon began assembling an "Army of England," along the coast of PAR, intended for a cross-channel attack. This army eventually numbered over 100,000 men.

Great Britain placed reliance for her defense upon the fleet, augmented by home defense militias of questionable value in case of invasion. At the outbreak of hostilities in 1803, France had two squadrons (23 ships of the line and 25 frigates); her ally, Holland, had one squadron. Meanwhile, Great Britain had four squadrons in commission, and another five in reserve (a total of 175 ships of the line and 256 frigates by 1805). By 1815 the British fleet had grown to 20 squadrons across the globe, while the French had only six.

In May of 1803, Great Britain declared war on France. From her bases in HOL and PIE, France immediately occupied OLD and NAP. Spanish payments to France in 1804 goaded Britain into seizing bullion ships en route to Spain, and Spain in turn declared war against Britain. Pitt replaced Addington as Prime Minister. Sweden signed alliances with Britain and Russia.

LA GUERRE DE L'EMPEREUR

 In December of 1804, Napoleon crowned himself Emperor. In May of 1805, he took the Iron Crown of Lombardy as King of an Italian Republic incorporating PIE and VNZ. This move affronted the Austrian Emperor Franz. Britain offered Russia one "Gold" (in terms of the game "La Guerre," £2-3 million) per 100,000 Russian soldiers sent against France. Austria and Prussia agreed to a defensive alliance with Russia. The coalition declared war on France soon thereafter.

THE DANUBE CAMPAIGN OF 1805

ULM

 Soon Napoleon launched the first of many campaigns against the other major powers. Baden and Bavaria, normally opposed to Austria, sided with France, while Prussia, which had offended Britain, received no subsidy and remained on the sidelines. Austria opened hostilities, sending a large force under the Archduke Charles into VNZ, while another force under Mack entered BAV and a further 25,000 under Archduke John held the Alpine passes through TYR. Two Russian armies were on their way to join their Austrian allies.

Before the Russians could arrive, however, Napoleon marched his army from the coast and swept into BAV, surprising Mack. In the battles around the town of Ulm, and the ensuing capitulation, Austria lost six of her seven infantry divisions; the swiftness of her collapse and the occupation of Vienna stunned the world. In the pursuit, Napoleon reached VIE and crossed the Danube into PRA. Charles was recalled from VNZ into HUN. In the north, Prussia made hesitant steps toward joining the coalition forces.

AUSTERLITZ

 Upon their arrival, the two Russian armies, now joined with the remnants of Mack's forces, moved into PRA, and fought an unsuccessful battle against Napoleon near the town of Austerlitz, whereupon the Austrian Emperor Franz signed an armistice, and the Russian armies withdrew under truce. The Treaty of Pressburg, between France and Austria, required Austria to cede ILL to the Kingdom of Italy, and TYR to BAV.

TRAFALGAR

 Meanwhile in October the combined French and Spanish fleets were intercepted by Nelson's British fleet of Cape Trafalgar, just outside the port of Cadiz (MUR). The French lost one of their two squadrons, and the projected invasion of Great Britain slipped out of reach. In November, a combined force of British and Russian troops landed in NAP, long after the French had withdrawn up the boot to VNZ. NAP joined the coalition, but the French returned from the north and drove them back upon SIC. The EmperorÔs brother Joseph was proclaimed King of NAP in March of 1806. With the re-occupation of ROM, French control over the whole Italian mainland was complete.

THE CAMPAIGN OF 1806

JENA-AUERSTÄDT In the Spring, Russia, though technically at war, withdrew behind her borders, and all the powers very nearly reached a peace settlement. This settlement fell apart over the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine. Prussia sent an ultimatum demanding the French ArmyÔs removal behind the Rhine on pain of war. NapoleonÔs offensive from THU into SAX anticipated the expiration of this ultimatum by a few hours. His army seized the Saxon plain, defeated the Prussians in the battles of Jena and AuerstŠdt in mid-October, and hunted the fleeing remnants through WES and BER.

In November, Napoleon paraded his army in BER while awaiting the final results of the campaign. But diplomatic efforts aimed at a peace agreement again collapsed. Though the French captured all but a remnant of their foes, 600 miles of marching exhausted them. The onset of bad weather found them scattered as a fresh Prussian Corps and two Russian armies prepared to meet them in EPR, THO, and WAR. Imperial headquarters redeployed to POS and received Polish emissaries urging a reconstituted Polish state.

THE EAGLES TURN EAST

 After fighting several inconclusive battles in THO in December, Russia attacked in Spring of 1807, drawing that campaign in the Battle of Eylau in EPR, and causing Napoleon's withdrawal though he retained WAR. Napoleon's Grande ArmŽe had been stopped cold by the Russians, and at the same time the Russians evolved the strategy they would later employ to great effect.

A second battle in EPR in Summer, 1807, forced the Russians and Prussians to surrender, and Napoleon achieved the alliance with Russia he so desired. His Army, which set out from THU with about 20 infantry and 8 cavalry divisions, lost as many divisions during the 1806/1807 campaign. Nonetheless, Napoleon had achieved the height of his power, and, except for a growing conflict in Spain, Europe remained at peace until 1809.

1809

 In the Spring, Austria thought to take advantage of the Spanish ulcer to attack TYR from VIE, while two corps attacked BAV from PRA. They lost the battle for TYR but fell back and fought two separate actions in PRA, losing the second time, at Wagram, in July. From then on, a guarded peace reigned, except in Spain, until the Summer of 1812.

THE CONTINENTAL SYSTEM

In November 1806, while his army marched ahead, Napoleon issued his fatal Berlin DecreesÑthe "Continental System"Ñbanning British goods from the continent, just as England had forbidden all neutral merchant ships to trade with France or Germany. Napoleon hoped to ruin British industry and create the social unrest that might bring down the British government.

The Emperor did not foresee that Britain would eventually use neutral shipping herself to evade the blockade. The Emperor, then, decided to include neutrals under the blockade at the end of 1810. This would have completely ruined the Russian economy. As it was, the blockade cost Russia, Germany, Prussia, and Britain 20%Ñ30% of their annual income. The blockade came at a time when the British economy was expandingÑcotton exports, which in 1793 totaled £1.65 million, by 1815 had multiplied to £22.5 million. Europe could not get along without coffee, spices and other tropical goods. Unless the British economy were undermined, Napoleon realized he would never bring his nemesis down.

In fact, his continental system did weaken the British economy, precipitating an economic crisis in 1808 and again in 1811-1812. After sustaining a loss of one-third its value in 1808, by 1811 the pound had fallen below one-half its former value. Unfortunately for France, the economic disaster struck Napoleon's dependent states, turning public opinion against him, and in 1811, France herself suffered a harsh depression.

BRITISH SUBSIDIES

Britain made loans of £440 million to her allies between 1793 and 1815. In 1814 the amount of the subsidies was £10 million and in 1815 it was an astonishing £65 million.

EVENTS IN SPAIN

Soult moved out from GLS, to invade Portugal on 9 March 1809. Victor in MAD defeated Cuesta's attacks toward the end of March. Sir Arthur Wellesley (later Viscount Wellington) departed London mid-April, arriving in Lisbon a week later. He commanded 3 British and 2 Portuguese infantry. These troops moved north to defend LIS in mid-May. Soult, with 2i, 2c, 1a, retreated. Wellesley pursued and captured the French artillery.

Wellesley realized the French had too many men in GLS too few in MAD. In July, therefore, Wellesley (2i, 2c) crossed the border into BAI, and joined with Cuesta in another advance against Victor. Victor (2i, 1c) avoided battle and withdrew, while Venegas (2i, 1c) skirmished with Sebastiani's Corps in BAI. Soult withdrew from GLS to join with Mortier in BUR. Cuesta with 4 Spanish infantry pursued Victor, who was soon reinforced by Joseph and Sebastiani to a combined strength of 6i. Cuesta fell back upon Wellesley's British force (2i, 2c) at Talavera. The French attacked and were defeatedÑbut not routed; losses on each side were about one infantry division. For this achievement Wellesley was made Viscount Wellington.

Venegas advanced on MAD. Soult with 6i and 1c of his own, Ney's, and Mortier's Corps moved to cut Wellesley's communications with Portugal.

Two Spanish factions vied for political power in Spain: one sought liberal reforms in the monarchy, and the other feared revolution and sought the immediate readoption of the royal regency. Meanwhile French troops under Suchet besieged CAT, defended by a garrison of 7,000 under Don Alvarez de Castro, who surrendered in December of 1809. Suchet was now complete master of CAT. But in BUR, guerilla bands made sure that only one-fourth of French reinforcements ever reached the front.

THE INVASION OF PORTUGAL

Marshal Massena marched across into LIS in September of 1810. He had great difficultiesÑinsufficient forces, communications that were often intercepted, and soldiers unable to forage for supplies in the presence of the enemy. He asked for more reinforcements and supplies, but when these did not arrive by March of 1811, he withdrew from Portugal.

THE GEO-POLITICAL SITUATION

NAPOLEON'S GOALS The Emperor sought ¥ a sincere Alliance with Austria ¥ to appease Germany by evacuating the countries beyond the Rhine ¥ to devote all his attention to Spain ¥ to sustain the continental blockade. To increase the effectiveness of the blockade he had ¥ annexed Holland to the Empire ¥ taxed all colonial merchandise. In December of 1810, however, Napoleon absorbed OLD and MEC into the French Empire as well, and in so doing aroused all the distrust which he had hoped to neutralize.

RUSSIA

 Treated most cavalierly since the war with Austria, and expected by Napoleon to observe his decrees on trade with neutrals as though they were bound by treaty, Russia was alarmed by the annexation of OLD and the other territories and by the augmentation of the garrison of EPR and convinced that with Napoleon there was but a short interval between estrangement and actual warfare. First, however, Alexander wished to consolidate his conquest of MOL gained from the Turks in 1810 and for this one more campaign would be required.

Already deprived of trade with England, the Tsar was unwilling to lose trade contacts with America and Sweden as Napoleon decreed all neutrals that touched at England "denationalized." The Continental embargo had crippled Russia's trade in hemp, flax, furs and wood, and had ruined LIT, because of lost grain exports to Britain. The resulting trade imbalance had reduced the ruble by almost half its purchasing power. Alexander chose war rather than suppress his country's commerce, and began military precautions: ¥ Established a fortified line LIV-BOR, with fortifications constructed. ¥ Recalled Russian regiments in FIN to LIT ¥ Placed his divisions on the Polish frontier on a war footing.

In January of 1811, Napoleon determined to teach Russia a final lesson, and to finish the job he had begun at Friedland in 1807. The Emperor henceforth gave only divided attention to Spain and no longer thought of leading there in person. It became impossible to send a reinforcement of ten divisions to Spain and Portugal when he was occupied in preparing three armies between the Rhine and Vistula.

In January 1812, Napoleon withdrew 3 infantry and one cavalry divisions from Spain, including the Imperial Guard and Polish troops. By March the French had the following troops remaining there: Army of the North, GLS, DorsenneÑ6i Army of Aragon, CAT, SuchetÑ1i, 1c, 1a Army of Portugal, MAD, MarmontÑ5i, 2c, 2a Army of the Center, MAD, JosephÑ2i, 1c Garrison of MADÑ1 Span i, 2 Fr i Army of the South, BAI, SoultÑ6i, 3c Wellington besieged BAI in March with 5i, 3c, 1a. He then advanced into MAD in July, with 4i, 2c, 1a, 3 Portuguese infantry, and 1 Spanish cavalry.

THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN

Many of the best soldiers of the Grande ArmŽe had been lost in Poland in 1807, in Spain, and in Austria in 1809. The Emperor had learned no lessons from his campaigns, and his own abilities were on the decline. No one on his staff thought the invasion of Russia a good idea. It was indeed a colossal blunderÑit's great distance from base, the lack of roads, ports and warehouses, the inhospitality of the climate, all conspired against the man of destiny. Joseph Poniatowski, the Polish commander, pleaded with Napoleon to aim his first thrust at KIE and the rich breadbasket of KHA and ODE, a source of grain, fodder, and horses. This would lead them through BIA, traditionally Polish lands whose inhabitants would rise in rebellion, just as GAL had done in 1809.

The French Army crossed into Russia on the 22nd of June. The invasion was timed with the ripening of the wheat, rye, and barley to feed the Grande ArmŽe's 24 cavalry divisions, as well as 200,000 other horses. Unfortunately, the warm weather was weeks late and the crops remained unripe. Each soldier carried twenty pounds of flour, rice, and biscuits, and every unit was supposed to maintain an untouched reserve of food to last twenty days. The Russians had three armies stationed in LIT, MIN, and BIA. Napoleon's aim was to keep them divided and destroy them piecemeal. The Russians refused to play that game, and withdrew out of reach. While Napoleon with the main column marched THO-MIN-BOR, Murat's cavalry hurried on the northern route THO-LIT-BOR, and Jerome followed BIA-MIN-BOR.

ATTRITION

The losses from fatigue during the marches were increased by Napoleon's impatience to keep the Russian Armies divided, and he pushed his soldiers forward relentlessly. In one week, three to four divisions melted away. By the first of July, Jerome's army was reduced to less than half of the 3 infantry and two cavalry divisions that left WES. Even after resting in Grodno, only one division was able to complete the next day's march. Prince Eugene's march from THO to MIN cost his two corps 4,000 horses. Davout's corps, marching on an undefended route, had it somewhat easier, finding at MIN 22,000 bushels of oats, 6,000 hundredweight of straw, and twenty vats of vodka, cannon and artillery supplies. Marshal Ney's corps, marching behind the others, seized what supplies it could from the wagons of other corps. By the time the First and Second French Cavalry Corps reached BOR, they had lost three divisionsÑone-half of the number that had started in THO some four weeks earlier.

SMOLENSK

 The Russians finally united all their forces and stood for battle at Smolensk (BOR). At the end of the day the Russians withdrew, but every day brought them closer to their base, while the French drew farther and farther away from theirs. The grognards hoped the advance would stop at BOR to prepare the following year's campaign. Though Napoleon considered this for many days, ultimately of course he made the fatal decision to stake everything on one roll of the dice.

On their withdrawal from BOR, the Russian systematically gutted the stocks of grain, sugar and salt, and even emptied the apothecary shops. Nevertheless, when the French reached VYA, they entered the richer country which remains very good as far as Moscow. French Morale, which had slumped during the march from BOR, now rose with the rain and richer territory. By September most of the corps were down to half their original strength. Orders were issued to have all stragglers rounded up and returned to the ranks.

BORODINO

In the battle of Borodino (VYA) on September 7th, the French lost 49 killed or wounded generals, 37 colonels, 6,547 dead officers, noncoms, and soldiers, and 21,453 wounded. Another 15,000 of the Grande ArmŽe's horses perishedÑa crippling blow to MuratÔs cavalry reserve. Ragged, exhausted by heat and disease, the French Army entered the burning Russian capital, and waited for negotiations that never came.

RETREAT

With the onset of Frost, and the Russian Army nearby, Napoleon realized he could not survive the winter in Moscow, but it was too late. In the first week of December 1812, details of the disastrous retreat of the Grande ArmŽe arrived in the capitals of Europe. By the end of the year, Napoleon himself was back in Paris. However, barely one division of his formidable armada survived.

1813

Metternich, the Austrian Foreign Minister, sent word to Napoleon of his readiness to arbitrate between the warring parties. At the moment, the Prussian King still feared Napoleon, despite the demise of his army in Russia, even denouncing Count Yorck's defection with the Prussian Corps to the Russian side. The Austrians formed parties of "Napoleon Haters," who demanded an immediate declaration of war. The army, the people, even the Empress and Archduke Charles, clambered for an immediate break with Napoleon. Ignoring their accusations, Metternich went about his work, building up armament in the conviction that Napoleon would begin a new campaign in Germany during 1813. With French knowledge and approval, Austria recruited the army toward a goal of 100,000 men.

In January the Prussian Chancellor, Karl von Hardenberg, approached Metternich with an offer of alliance between the two nominal French allies. Citing the awkwardness of Franz' position as father-in-law to the French Emperor, Metternich recommended that Prussia ally instead with Russia. Within thirty days, the Treaty of Kalisch was signed, committing Prussia to the cause of remaking the map of Europe, and taking over France's position as protector of the north German states. By playing his nerve-wracking game, Metternich was able to frustrate Prussian ambitions, obtaining from the Tsar the guaranteed return of all Austria's former possessions, as well as the restoration of the Holy Roman Empire under a Habsburg Emperor. He accomplished this be remaining officially neutral, encouraging both sides to believe that Austria's army would eventually intervene on their own behalf, while representing herself to all parties as desiring only peace and thereby acquiring the role of mediator.

Russian troops appeared ready to surge into the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. Poland's defenders comprised Poniatowski's Polish and Schwarzenberg's Austrian troops, withdrawing southward toward the Austrian frontier. Before long the unopposed Russians were in SAX.

Austria was willing to accept peace if France would give up Spain, MEC, and OLD, and the Grand Duchy of Warsaw; disband the Confederation of the Rhine, and return to Austria TYR and ILL given up to France in 1805. France would remain a powerful empire, retaining the Rhineland, together with HOL; PIE and ROM in Italy, and the Kingdom of WES as an allied state. Toward the end of March, Napoleon sent a new ambassador to Vienna. He did not reveal to him on what conditions to seek peace; only that it was necessary for Austria to summon the Coalition to halt their operations in Germany, and if they should refuse, for her to launch 100,000 men into SIL against the flank of the Coalition advance, while Napoleon himself attacked from THU. For her part in these operations, Austria would gain SIL, ILL, and part of Poland.

LÜTZEN

Meanwhile Napoleon had miraculously created a huge new army and stopped the Coalition assault in SAX at the battle of LŸtzen. Pursuing, he defeated the Russian and Prussian armies again at Bautzen (SIL). However, he had only 4 cavalry divisions, not enough to clinch the pursuits, so he accepted an armistice, moderated by Austria, while he raised more forces. The Armistice lasted from the end of May until the middle of August.

LEIPZIG

By that time, Austria was at last ready to join the Coalition, and on all sides massive reinforcements had joined the field armies. The Autumn campaign took place in the provinces of SIL, BER, and mainly in SAX, and ended with French defeat at the battle of Leipzig. For the second time in two years, the French retreated with a loss of half a million men.

1814

NAPOLEON AT BAY

Coalition armies crossed the Rhine into LOR while a small army attacked a single French Corps in BEL. While his diplomats attempted to obtain a renewal of the offer from Austria he had rejected the year before, Napoleon attempted to defend PAR in a series of battles in February ("Six Days of Glory," 8th-14th) and March. After losing PAR he was forced to accept exile on the isle of Elba, off the coast of his homeland of Corsica.

1815

Hearing of dissention among the Coalition partners who were now bickering over the disposition of Poland and SAX among other issues at the Congress of Vienna, Napoleon saw an opportunity in their factionalism to return to France and perhaps find an ally in Austria. There was never any real hope of this, despite the fact that his darling bride was an Austrian princess.

After Napoleon's offers of negotiation were rejected. in early June, French forces began converging on the border of BEL, and the border was sealed. On the 12th, Napoleon left his capital and moved to join the army.

LAST DAYS OF THE GRANDE ARMEE

On June 15th, the French Army was unleashed into BEL. The Allies executed a forward concentration behind the cover of their respective screens. As the 16th dawned, troops of both sides still converged on the battlefields of Ligny and QuatreBras.

The French attacked on two battlefields simultaneously. The tenacious defense of Quatre Bras by the AngloAllied troops saved the Prussians from receiving the full weight of the ArmŽe du Nord. Napoleon's hoped-for knockout blow remained undelivered.

WATERLOO

 The Allies withdrew in tandem, on parallel routes north, and Napoleon separated the two wings of his army, ordering Marshal Grouchy on the track of the Prussians while he pursued Wellington. While Grouchy engaged the Prussian rearguard at Wavre, Wellington fought a successful defensive battle at Waterloo, managing to cling to his ridge until the arrival of BlŸcher's Prussians. The French retreatedÑthe routed forces of Napoleon back toward Charleroi and toward PAR; the intact wing of Grouchy in a southeasterly direction, toward LOR, where General Rapp's V Corps staved off the advancing Austrians. The Russians, however, were right behind them, and crossed the Rhine one week after Waterloo. Within a month the Emperor was on his final journey to exile on St. Helena, a rock in the South Atlantic.